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Research Topics

Offence Definitions and Sentencing

Compares secession, subversion, terrorism, collusion, sedition, state secrets, sabotage, external interference, and sentencing outcomes.

Issue

  • What conduct has courts treated as secession, terrorism, or collusion?
  • How are common-law conspiracy principles used in national security cases?
  • What sentencing ranges are emerging from leading cases?

Related topics

24 records

Official Legislation 2020-06-30

Law of the PRC on Safeguarding National Security in the HKSAR

Instrument A302; effective 30 June 2020

Central legislation establishing offences of secession, subversion, terrorist activities, and collusion with foreign or external forces, plus institutions and procedures for national security enforcement in Hong Kong.

Jurisdiction
Hong Kong / Mainland China
Body
NPC Standing Committee / HKSAR
NSLoffencesinstitutionsprocedure
Open source
Official Legislation 2024-03-23

Safeguarding National Security Ordinance

Instrument A305; effective 23 March 2024

Hong Kong's local Article 23 legislation covering treason, insurrection, sabotage, external interference, state secrets and espionage, and related investigatory and procedural powers.

Jurisdiction
Hong Kong
Body
HKSAR Legislative Council
Article 23SNSOstate secretsexternal interference
Open source
Case law Case 2021-07-30

HKSAR v Tong Ying Kit

HCCC 280/2020; [2021] HKCFI 2200 and [2021] HKCFI 2239

The first completed NSL trial, central to debates over offence interpretation, expressive conduct, non-jury adjudication, and sentencing.

Jurisdiction
Hong Kong
Body
Court of First Instance
first trialsecessionterrorismsentencing
Read case brief Source
Case law Case 2021-12-14

HKSAR v Ng Hau Yi Sidney

FAMC 32/2021; [2021] HKCFA 42; (2021) 24 HKCFAR 417

Key bail decision extending Article 42 analysis beyond offences created by the NSL to local sedition offences treated as endangering national security.

Jurisdiction
Hong Kong
Body
Appeal Committee of the Court of Final Appeal
bailseditionArticle 42Crimes Ordinance
Read case brief Source
Case law Case 2021-11-23

HKSAR v Chung Hon Lam

DCCC 27/2021; [2021] HKDC 1484

Early secession sentencing decision involving Studentlocalism, online platforms, overseas advocacy, and fundraising links.

Jurisdiction
Hong Kong
Body
District Court
secessionStudentlocalismsentencingonline speech
Read case brief Source
Case law Case 2022-08-03

HKSAR v Ma Chun Man

CACC 272/2021; [2022] HKCA 1151; [2022] 5 HKLRD 221

Leading Court of Appeal decision on classifying incitement to secession as serious or minor and on how local sentencing principles operate within the NSL framework.

Jurisdiction
Hong Kong
Body
Court of Appeal
incitementsecessionsentencingserious nature
Read case brief Source
Case law Case 2022-09-07

HKSAR v Lai Man Ling and Others

DCCC 854/2021; [2022] HKDC 981; [2022] 4 HKLRD 657

Speech-therapists' picture-book case addressing sedition elements, knowledge and intent, constitutional arguments, and continuing conspiracy.

Jurisdiction
Hong Kong
Body
District Court
seditionpublicationschildren's booksCrimes Ordinance
Read case brief Source
Case law Case 2023-08-22

HKSAR v Lui Sai Yu

FACC 7/2023; [2023] HKCFA 26

Leading Court of Final Appeal authority on the NSL sentencing framework, mitigation, and the relationship between local sentencing law and national law.

Jurisdiction
Hong Kong
Body
Court of Final Appeal
sentencingArticle 21Article 33mandatory minimum
Read case brief Source
Case law Case 2024-03-07

HKSAR v Tam Tak Chi

CACC 62/2022; [2024] HKCA 231; [2024] 2 HKLRD 565

Major appellate decision on sedition elements, prescribed-by-law and proportionality challenges, and public-order offences in a national security context.

Jurisdiction
Hong Kong
Body
Court of Appeal
seditionproportionalityconstitutional challengepublic order
Read case brief Source
Case law Case 2024-05-30

HKSAR v Ng Gordon Ching-hang and Others

HCCC 69/2022; [2024] HKCFI 1468

Central first-instance judgment on the '47 Democrats' case, useful for studying subversion, electoral strategy, and interpretation of 'other unlawful means'.

Jurisdiction
Hong Kong
Body
Court of First Instance
Hong Kong 47subversionArticle 22primary election
Read case brief Source
Case law Case 2025-12-15

HKSAR v Lai Chee Ying and Apple Daily Companies

HCCC 51/2022; [2025] HKCFI 6291

Major collusion and sedition verdict involving Apple Daily, foreign-sanctions allegations, and the relationship between press activity and national security offences.

Jurisdiction
Hong Kong
Body
Court of First Instance
Jimmy LaiApple Dailycollusionseditionpress
Read case brief Source
Academic Academic 2025-12-04

Taking a Common Law Approach to National Law: National Security Adjudication and Sentencing in Hong Kong after 47 Democrats

The Journal of Criminal Law, 89(5-6), 335-342 (2025)

Article commentary on the Hong Kong 47 verdict and sentencing judgments, focusing on common-law methodology, legal certainty, separation of powers, and national-security-first reasoning.

Jurisdiction
Hong Kong
Body
The Journal of Criminal Law
Hong Kong 47subversionsentencingcommon law
Open source
Comparative statute Comparative 2000-07-20

Terrorism Act 2000

2000 c. 11

Core UK counter-terrorism statute defining terrorism and providing offences, proscription, investigation, and border/examination powers.

Jurisdiction
United Kingdom
Body
UK Parliament
United Kingdomterrorismproscriptionpolice powers
Open source
Comparative statute Comparative 1917-06-15

18 U.S.C. Chapter 37: Espionage and Censorship

18 U.S.C. §§ 792-799

Federal criminal provisions covering national-defense information, aid to foreign governments, restricted defense installations, and disclosure of classified communications intelligence.

Jurisdiction
United States
Body
United States Congress
United Statesespionagenational defense informationclassified information
Open source
Comparative statute Comparative 1935-07-05

Official Secrets Act 1935

Official Secrets Act 1935

Singapore statute preventing disclosure of official documents and information, including spying and wrongful communication offences.

Jurisdiction
Singapore
Body
Singapore Parliament / Attorney-General's Chambers
Singaporeofficial secretsspyingdisclosure
Open source
Comparative statute Comparative 1952-07-21

Subversive Activities Prevention Act

Act No. 240 of 1952

Japanese statute providing control measures against organizations that conduct terroristic subversive activities and supplementing penalties for such activities.

Jurisdiction
Japan
Body
National Diet of Japan
Japansubversionorganizationspublic security
Open source
Comparative statute Comparative 1994-03-01

French Penal Code: Offences Against the Fundamental Interests of the Nation

Code penal, Book IV, Title I, arts. 410-1 to 414-9

French criminal-law title covering treason, espionage, attacks on national defence, and related offences against the fundamental interests of the nation.

Jurisdiction
France
Body
French Republic / Legifrance
Franceespionagetreasonnational defence
Open source
Comparative statute Comparative 1998-11-13

German Criminal Code: High Treason, Democratic-State, and External Security Offences

Strafgesetzbuch, sections 80a-109k and related provisions

German federal criminal-law framework for high treason, endangering the democratic state under the rule of law, treason, and external-security offences.

Jurisdiction
Germany
Body
Federal Ministry of Justice / Federal Office of Justice
Germanyhigh treasonexternal securitydemocratic state
Open source
Comparative statute Comparative 1995-11-23

Spanish Criminal Code: Constitutional, Treason, and Terrorism Offences

Organic Law 10/1995 of 23 November, Criminal Code

Spain's consolidated Criminal Code includes offences against the Constitution, public order, treason, state security, and terrorism that support comparative research on offence architecture.

Jurisdiction
Spain
Body
Cortes Generales / Boletin Oficial del Estado
Spainconstitutiontreasonterrorism
Open source